// Resources
Further reading
The sources behind the claims on this site, organised by topic. Every figure and regulatory reference on this site is traceable to a primary or otherwise authoritative source listed below.
// EU and EEA law
- Directive 2003/87/EC, EU Emissions Trading System, as amended
- Directive (EU) 2018/2001, Renewable Energy Directive (RED II)
- Directive (EU) 2023/958, EU ETS aviation and European Commission, SAF ETS allowance allocation (2025)
- Delegated Regulation (EU) 2023/1184
- Delegated Regulation (EU) 2023/1185
- Regulation (EU) 2023/2405, ReFuelEU Aviation
- Directive (EU) 2023/2413, RED III
- EEA Joint Committee Decision No 334/2023, EFTA
- Delegated Regulation (EU) 2025/723
- EFTA Surveillance Authority, College Decision No 026/26/COL (11 February 2026)
// Icelandic statistics and agencies
- Statistics Iceland, External trade by chapter, UTA03801
- Statistics Iceland, imports by HS code and country of origin, table UTA06201
- Statistics Iceland, monthly external trade of goods, 2025
- Statistics Iceland, Tourism Satellite Accounts 2024; Icelandic Tourist Board, Numbers of foreign visitors
- Environment and Energy Agency; monthly electricity generation by source, 2017 to 2025
- Environment and Energy Agency, Underlying Assumptions of the Energy Forecast 2025–2050
- UOS-2025-4, Environment and Energy Agency, Þróun eldsneytissölu eftir notkunarflokkum og orkugjöfum á Íslandi; Þróun eldsneytissölu eftir notkunarflokkum og orkugjöfum á Íslandi, 1982 to 2024
- Environment and Energy Agency; national greenhouse gas inventory as reported to the EU, March 2026 submission
- Landsnet
- Lög nr. 106/2025 (Alþingi), amendment to the national emissions trading framework; the Article 3c(6) SAF support mechanism is not yet implemented in Icelandic law.
- Government of Iceland, Energy and EEA, Iceland renewable share
- Government of Iceland, Hydrogen and E-fuels Roadmap for Iceland, 2024
- Government of Iceland (Stjórnarráðið). Áfallaþol á grundvelli viðmiða Atlantshafsbandalagsins, áfangaskýrsla (resilience progress report, 12 December 2025)
- Þjóðaröryggisráð, assessment report (February 2021); Skýrsla starfshóps um neyðarbirgðir (Prime Minister’s Office working group on emergency fuel stocks, August 2022)
- Eimur, Olíusala á Íslandi
- Iceland energy in numbers (IðunnH2 infographic)
- Statistics Iceland, Gross energy consumption by source 1940-2020, IDN02102
// International agencies and standards
- International Energy Agency, Aviation sector overview
- Eurocontrol, Data Snapshot #4 (2021)
- Eurocontrol, Aviation Long-Term Outlook 2024–2050 (December 2024)
- International Energy Agency, Global Hydrogen Review 2024
- International Energy Agency, The Role of E-fuels in Decarbonising Transport (2023)
- International Energy Agency, Is carbon capture too expensive? (17 February 2021)
- International Energy Agency, CCUS in Clean Energy Transitions (2020)
- International Energy Agency, Direct Air Capture 2022
- International Energy Agency, Driving down the cost of carbon removal: Why innovation matters (2025)
- International Energy Agency, Breakthrough Agenda Report 2025, Power chapter; International Energy Agency, The Role of E-fuels in Decarbonising Transport (2023); McKinsey, Global Energy Perspective
- International Energy Agency, Sheltering From Oil Shocks (March 2026)
- IRENA, International Renewable Energy Agency
- IRENA, Green Hydrogen Cost Reduction (2020); IRENA, Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2023 (2024); Fraunhofer ISE, Power-to-X Country Analysis (2023)
- IRENA, Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2023 (2024)
- IRENA, Reaching Zero with Renewables: Biojet Fuels (2021)
- ICAO CORSIA, Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation
- ICAO, SAF portal
- ICAO, Environmental Protection (trends in international aviation emissions) and EASA, European Aviation Environmental Report (EAER); International Energy Agency, Oil Market Report (April 2026)
- EASA, Sustainable Aviation Fuels
- EASA, 2025 aviation fuels reference prices for ReFuelEU Aviation
- S&P Global Ratings, Iceland ‘A+/A-1’ Ratings Affirmed; Outlook Stable (5 September 2025)
- Moody’s Ratings, Iceland ratings upgraded to A1, outlook changed to stable (20 September 2024)
- ASTM D7566-24a, Standard specification for aviation turbine fuel containing synthesized hydrocarbons
- ASTM D1655, Aviation Turbine Fuels and UK Defence Standard 91-091
- CAAFI, ASTM D02.0J AC724 Task Force
- ISCC, sustainability certification; ISCC EU, ISCC CORSIA
- AACE International, Recommended Practice 17R-97
- ENTSO-E, Market Design and Regulatory Framework for Viable and Flexible Hydrogen Production, Executive Summary (2025)
- Eurostat, nrg_pc_205, electricity prices for non-household consumers (2025 H1)
- Eurostat, energy balances (nrg_bal_c, international aviation kerosene) and population (tps00001), 2024
- World Bank, Fuel imports as percentage of merchandise imports, Iceland
- NATO, Energy security; NATO, Climate Change and Security Impact Assessment (2024)
- IATA, Jet Fuel Price Monitor
- DEHSt (German Emissions Trading Authority), EU ETS aviation, emission factor (2024)
- dena (German Energy Agency), country-risk matrix
- European Commission, EU Innovation Fund
- Eurostat and the European Environment Agency, Greenhouse gas emissions by source sector, 2024, env_air_gge
- Eurostat, Fishing Fleet, Number of Vessels, 2024, tag00116
- Eurostat, Complete energy balances, March 2026 edition (2024 data)
- European Alternative Fuels Observatory (European Commission)
// Research and reports
- ICCT, Life-cycle GHG emissions by SAF pathway (2025)
- ICCT, Why and how to bring down the cost of SAF (2025)
- ICCT, Current and future cost of e-kerosene in the United States and Europe (2022); Seymour et al., RSC Sustainable Energy and Fuels (2024)
- Transport and Environment, e-kerosene reports (2024 to 2026)
- Transport and Environment, The e-SAF market: Europe’s head start and the road ahead (June 2025) and Feedback on the Sustainable Transport Investment Plan (September 2025); Transport and Environment, Why airlines’ complaints about ReFuelEU don’t add up (March 2026)
- Transport and Environment, EU agrees to world’s largest green fuels mandate for aviation
- SASHA Coalition and Cerulogy, Fuelling nature (2024); Full report PDF; RSPB, UK Bioenergy; Greenpeace, Unhooking Europe from Oil (2022)
- SASHA Coalition, Book-and-claim to de-risk European e-SAF production (2025); PDF
- Cerulogy (Sandford & Malins), funded by ICCT, Staying Aloft: support mechanisms for SAF in the UK and EU (May 2025) and ENTSO-E, Market Design and Regulatory Framework for Viable and Flexible Hydrogen Production (2025)
- Lee et al., The contribution of global aviation to anthropogenic climate forcing, Atmospheric Environment Vol. 244, 2021
- Elwalily et al., Sustainable aviation fuel production via the methanol pathway: a technical review, RSC Sustainable Energy and Fuels (2025)
- Nature Communications, Solar-driven direct air capture to produce sustainable aviation fuel (2026); International Energy Agency, Direct Air Capture; Climeworks
- Bube, Voß, Quante and Kaltschmitt (2025), Kerosene production from power-based syngas via Fischer-Tropsch and the methanol pathway, Fuel 384:133901; ICCT, Current and future cost of e-kerosene (2022)
- Seymour et al., Future costs of power-to-liquid sustainable aviation fuels produced from hybrid solar PV-wind plants in Europe, RSC Sustainable Energy and Fuels (2024)
- Denholm et al., NREL/TP-6A2-45834 (2009) and Landsvirkjun, Fljótsdalur Power Station
- Greenpeace, Unhooking Europe from Oil (2022)
- OSW Centre for Eastern Studies, Fuelling defence: NATO Central Europe Pipeline System (30 July 2025)
- Economic Policy Institute, Updated Employment Multipliers for the U.S. Economy
- McKinsey, Global Energy Perspective 2024/2025
- World Economic Forum, with Kearney, Financing Sustainable Aviation Fuels (February 2025)
- Hydrogen Council, How hydrogen is quietly maturing into reality (November 2025)
- Frontier Economics (for eFuel Alliance, Porsche, Stihl), Challenges and suggestions for eFuel support in the EU (November 2023)
- PwC Strategy&, From feedstock to flight: how to unlock the potential of SAF (2023)
- Concawe, E-Fuels: A techno-economic assessment of European domestic production and imports towards 2050 – Update, Report No. 4/24 (2024)
- Fraunhofer ISE, SAFari project, aireg webinar (2024)
- Fraunhofer ISE, for H2Global / GIZ, Power-to-X Country Analysis (May 2023)
- SAS, Aviation Insights No. 6: The Need for e-SAF in Scandinavia (April 2026)
- Ember, Yearly Electricity Data (2024)
- WRI, Aqueduct Water Risk Atlas 4.0
- Energy Institute, Statistical Review of World Energy 2026
- Lund and Toth, Direct Utilization of Geothermal Energy 2020 Worldwide Review, Geothermics vol. 90, 2021, table 3
// Companies and projects
- Carbon Recycling International
- Kadeco, Green Industrial Park and K64 masterplan
- Carbfix, How it works and Matter et al., Science (2016)
- Isavia, Keflavík Airport
- Isavia / Keflavík Airport, 2024 passenger statistics
- Landsvirkjun, Financial Statements 2025
- Rio Tinto, ISAL
- Topsoe, MTJet process
- Climeworks; Mammoth
- Carbon Recycling International, George Olah plant; HIF Global, Haru Oni; INERATEC, ERA ONE
- Airbus, ZEROe; GreenAir News, ZEROe delay (2025); CompositesWorld, ZEROe timeline to 2040s (2025); Destination 2050, 2nd edition (February 2025)
- CINEA (European Commission), E-fuel Pilot Project factsheet, Innovation Fund ref. 101132987
- Infinium, Announces Construction of Large-Scale eFuels Production Facility in Texas (19 May 2025)
- Brookfield to invest up to $1.1 billion in Infinium (10 September 2024)
- Gasworld, Twelve secures $645M funding (September 2024)
- Sasol, fifty years of synthetic fuel from coal and Secunda CTL (overview)
// News and press
- CNBC, Jet fuel prices climb as Middle East conflict threatens summer flights (6 May 2026) and Euronews, the jet fuel crisis (17 April 2026)
- European Commission, SAF allowance allocation (September 2025)
- European Commission, DG MOVE, eSAF Early Movers’ Coalition (4 December 2025); H2Global Foundation
- European Commission, IF25 Hydrogen Auction (2026)
- European Commission, Press release IP/26/629 (22 April 2026)
- Boeing Defense, Guidance on SAF Usage for Defense Aircraft (20 July 2024)
- ADS Advance, RAF SAF spending and UK fuel security (2026) and Aerospace Global News
- Honeywell, How ASTM approval of methanol-to-jet accelerates SAF at scale (June 2026)
- IATA, SAF Production Growth Rate is Slowing Down (December 2025)
- Decarbonfuse, eSAF Takes Flight: Power-to-Liquid Tech Sparks 48% Growth
- GreenAir News, EU states to mobilise EUR 500M support for early-mover eSAF and European Commission, eSAF Early Movers Coalition announcement (4 December 2025)
- Taxpayers for Common Sense, Hydrogen Secured Last-Minute Win in Budget Bill (July 2025) and Norton Rose Fulbright, Effects of the One Big Beautiful Bill on Projects (July 2025)
- New Security Beat (Stimson Center), Is China’s Sustainable Aviation Fuel Ready to Take Off? (2026); Blackridge Research, SPIC $5.85bn green hydrogen fuel investment (2024); OilPrice.com, China’s coal-to-liquids expansion (2026)
- Oil and Gas Journal, Majors pull back from renewable energy investments (April 2025) and BloombergNEF, Big Oil Pivots Away From Renewable Power on Low Returns (April 2024)
- CompositesWorld, DLR exhibits full-scale CFRP liquid hydrogen tank test item for zero-emission aviation (28 October 2025)